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<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Archiving and Interchange DTD v1.4 20241031//EN" "https://jats.nlm.nih.gov/archiving/1.4/JATS-archive-oasis-article1-4-mathml3.dtd">
<article xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" article-type="research-article" xml:lang="en"><front><journal-meta><issn publication-format="print">2072-6414</issn><issn publication-format="electronic">2411-1406</issn></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.17059/ekon.reg.2025-1-13</article-id><title-group xml:lang="en"><article-title>Impact of Uncertainty on Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC) Development at Different Country Income Levels</article-title></title-group><title-group xml:lang="ru"><article-title>Влияние неопределенности на развитие цифровой валюты центрального банка (CBDC) в странах с различным уровнем доходов</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8614-3189</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Prayudya</surname><given-names>Daffa R.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Прауда </surname><given-names>Даффа Р. </given-names></name></name-alternatives><email>daffarizqi.prayudya@student.adelaide.edu.au</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3424-2545</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><given-names>Firmansyah</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><given-names>Фирмансях </given-names></name></name-alternatives><email>firman.undip@gmail.com</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff-alternatives id="aff1"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">The University of Adelaide</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Университет Аделаиды</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff2"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">Diponegoro University</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Университет Дипонегоро</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><pub-date date-type="pub" iso-8601-date="2024-12-17" publication-format="electronic"/><volume>21</volume><issue>1</issue><fpage>180</fpage><lpage>194</lpage><history><date date-type="received" iso-8601-date="2024-03-18"/><date date-type="accepted" iso-8601-date="2024-06-06"/></history><permissions xml:lang="en"><copyright-statement>Copyright © 2025 Daffa R. Prayudya, Firmansyah</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2025</copyright-year><copyright-holder>Daffa R. Prayudya, Firmansyah</copyright-holder><ali:free_to_read/><license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"><license-p>CC BY 4.0</license-p></license></permissions><permissions xml:lang="ru"><copyright-statement>Copyright © 2025 Даффа Р. Прауда, Фирмансях</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2025</copyright-year><copyright-holder>Даффа Р. Прауда, Фирмансях</copyright-holder><ali:free_to_read/><license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"><license-p>CC BY 4.0</license-p></license></permissions><self-uri content-type="html" mimetype="text/html" xlink:title="article webpage" xlink:href="https://www.economyofregions.org/ojs/index.php/er/article/view/825">https://www.economyofregions.org/ojs/index.php/er/article/view/825</self-uri><self-uri content-type="pdf" mimetype="application/pdf" xlink:title="article pdf" xlink:href="https://www.economyofregions.org/ojs/index.php/er/article/download/825/410">https://www.economyofregions.org/ojs/index.php/er/article/download/825/410</self-uri><abstract xml:lang="en"><p>The drawbacks of cryptocurrencies have prompted central banks to explore central bank digital currencies (CBDCs) as a new means of payment. However, various uncertainties may hinder the optimal design and implementation of CBDCs. This study examines the impact of uncertainty on CBDC development across countries with different income levels. Using data from 92 countries spanning 2014 to 2021, the research employs Ordered Logit and Probit models to analyse categorized dependent variables reflecting CBDC development, followed by an Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) with fixed effects model as a robustness check. Subsample estimations are applied to assess the effects within high, middle, and low-income countries. The study finds that uncertainty significantly and negatively impacts CBDC development, with the effect being more pronounced in middle and low-income countries. This suggests that the underdeveloped interoperability of the financial system, along with insufficient infrastructure and digital literacy, are key factors delaying CBDC progress in these regions, particularly when uncertainty is high. Collaboration and information-sharing among central banks are crucial to reduce global uncertainty and share best practices. Central banks should also prioritize the development of transparent regulatory frameworks, enhance digital literacy, and implement targeted infrastructure development incentives. Future research should focus on identifying optimal CBDC designs tailored to each income level to overcome these obstacles and foster a more inclusive and resilient financial ecosystem.</p></abstract><abstract xml:lang="ru"><p>В связи с выявлением существенных недостатков использования криптовалют центральные банки в качестве нового платежного средства рассматривают цифровую валюту центрального банка (CBDC). Однако препятствием для оптимального проектирования и внедрения CBDC могут стать различные факторы неопределенности. В данной статье рассматривается влияние неопределенности на развитие CBDC в странах с разным уровнем дохода. На основе данных из 92 стран за период с 2014 по 2021 г. в исследовании сначала используются упорядоченные логит- и пробит-модели для анализа категоризированных зависимых переменных, отражающих развитие CBDC, а затем — обычная модель наименьших квадратов (МНК) с фиксированными эффектами для проверки робастности. Оценка подвыборки применяется для изучения последствий развития CBDC в странах с высоким, средним и низким уровнем дохода. Показано, что неопределенность имеет существенное негативное влияние на развитие CBDC, причем эффект более выражен в странах со средним и низким уровнем дохода. Это говорит о том, что основными факторами, замедляющими развитие CBDC в этих регионах в условиях высокой неопределенности, являются недостаточно развитая функциональная совместимость финансовой системы, инфраструктура и цифровая грамотность. Исследование показало, что для решения этих проблем и обеспечения успешного внедрения CBDC при различных уровнях дохода необходима разработка индивидуальной политики. Сотрудничество и обмен информацией между центральными банками имеют решающее значение для снижения глобальной неопределенности и обмена передовым опытом. Центральным банкам также рекомендуется разработать прозрачную нормативно-правовую базу, повышать цифровую грамотность населения и внедрять целевые стимулы для развития инфраструктуры. Дальнейшие исследования в этой области должны быть направлены на определение оптимальных схем CBDC для каждого уровня дохода, чтобы преодолеть указанные препятствия и создать более инклюзивную и устойчивую финансовую экосистему.</p></abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>CBDC</kwd><kwd>Uncertainty</kwd><kwd>Central bank</kwd><kwd>Country income</kwd><kwd>Ordered Logit</kwd><kwd>Ordered Tobit</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="ru"><kwd>CBDC</kwd><kwd>неопределенность</kwd><kwd>центральный банк</kwd><kwd>доход страны</kwd><kwd>упорядоченная логит-модель</kwd><kwd>упорядоченная пробит-модель</kwd></kwd-group></article-meta></front><body/><back><ack xml:lang="en"><p>The authors extend their gratitude to the Indonesia Endowment Fund for Education (LPDP), Ministry of Finance, Republic of Indonesia, for funding the first author’s master’s program. The authors take full responsibility for any errors or omissions in this work.</p></ack><ack xml:lang="ru"><p>Авторы выражают свою признательность Индонезийскому благотворительному фонду образования (LPDP), Министерству финансов Республики Индонезия за финансирование магистерской программы первого автора. Авторы несут полную ответственность за любые ошибки или упущения в этой работе.</p></ack><ref-list><ref id="ref1"><label>1</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Abbas, Z., Afshan, G., &amp; Mustifa, G. (2022). The effect of financial development on economic growth and income distribution: an empirical evidence from lower-middle and upper-middle-income countries. Development Studies Research, 9 (1), 117–128. https://doi.org/10.1080/21665095.2022.2065325</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Abbas, Z., Afshan, G., &amp; Mustifa, G. (2022). 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